?url_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adc&rft.relation=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.iiasa.ac.at%2Fid%2Feprint%2F4941%2F&rft.title=Human+Transformations+of+the+Swedish+Boreal+Forestry&rft.creator=Fries%2C+C.&rft.description=A+successful+production-oriented+forestry+has+influenced+nearly+all+Swedish+boreal+forests.++Accordingly%2C+the+standing+volume+has+increased+continuously+since+official+data+became+available+in+the+1920s.+On+the+other+hand%2C+there+is+very+little+natural+forest+left%2C+except+in+the+sub-alpine+area.+%0D%0A%0D%0AIn+the+pre-industrial+era%2C+probably+the+most+important+human+impact+on+the+Swedish+boreal+forests+(around+two-thirds+of+the+country's+productive+forest+land+may+be+considered+as+boreal)+was+the+conversion+of+forests+to+arable+land%2C+e.g.+on+sediments+around+lakes+and+in+river+valleys.+In+the+19th+century%2C+fire+suppression+had+become+effective+in+the+whole+area.+Until+the+beginning+of+the+present+century%2C+the+iron+industry+in+the+southern+part+of+boreal+Sweden+needed+large+quantities+of+wood+and+charcoal.+To+ensure+this+supply%2C+forest+management+based+on+the+clear-felling+harvest+system+was+introduced+in+the+middle+of+the+19th+century.+Today%2C+most+sites+in+this+region+carry+their+second+or+third+rotation.+%0D%0A%0D%0ANorth+of+the+mining+district%2C+i.e.+the+major+part+of+boreal+Sweden%2C+a+logging+frontier+moved+northwards+during+the+19th+century.+Initially%2C+large+diameter+Scots+pine+was+cut+in+a+purely+exploitive+manner.+The+standing+volume+was+substantially+reduced%2C+probably+from+a+level+higher+than+today's.+This+selective+cutting+was+replaced+by+the+clear-felling+system+around+1950%2C+when+the+state+launched+a+restoration+program+to+regenerate+low-stocked+sites.+Since+1950%2C+around+44%25+of+the+productive+forest+land+in+boreal+Sweden+has+been+cleared.+Intensive+regeneration+measures+and+stand+treatments+have+generated+rather+homogeneous+stands+dominated+by+conifers.+Since+1970%2C+lodgepole+pine%2C+introduced+from+western+Canada%2C+has+been+planted+on+4%25+of+the+productive+forest+land+in+boreal+Sweden.+%0D%0A%0D%0AThese+radical+changes+in+the+Swedish+boreal+forests+have+heavily+altered+the+natural+processes+and+structures+at+different+spatial+scales.+Fragments+of+woodland+key+habitats+containing+red-listed+plants+(mainly+cryptogams+as+fungi%2C+lichens%2C+and+mosses)+and+animals+(mainly+insects)+are+embedded+in+a+matrix+of+well-managed+forests.+From+a+biodiversity+point+of+view%2C+the+most+important+management+measures+probably+are+to+increase+the+number+and+quality+of+undisturbed+forests+and+the+amounts+of+coarse+woody+debris+and+deciduous+trees%2C+and+to+reintroduce+fire.&rft.publisher=WP-96-086&rft.date=1996-07&rft.type=Monograph&rft.type=NonPeerReviewed&rft.format=text&rft.language=en&rft.identifier=https%3A%2F%2Fpure.iiasa.ac.at%2Fid%2Feprint%2F4941%2F1%2FWP-96-086.pdf&rft.identifier=++Fries%2C+C.++(1996).++Human+Transformations+of+the+Swedish+Boreal+Forestry.+++IIASA+Working+Paper.+IIASA%2C+Laxenburg%2C+Austria%3A+WP-96-086+++++