Subnational survey data reveal persistent gaps in living standards across 75 low and middle-income countries

Hoffmann, R., Patange, O. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6075-8214, Zimm, C. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5603-1015, Pachauri, S. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8138-3178, Belmin, C. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-1680-7306, Pelz, S. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3528-8679, Brutschin, E. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7040-3057, Kikstra, J. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9405-1228, Kuhn, M., Min, J. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0020-1174, Muttarak, R. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0627-4451, Riahi, K. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7193-3498, Schinko, T. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1156-7574, & Mintz-Woo, K. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9216-9561 (2025). Subnational survey data reveal persistent gaps in living standards across 75 low and middle-income countries. Nature Communications 16 (1) e4986. 10.1038/s41467-025-60195-5.

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Abstract

Many households worldwide face substantial gaps in decent living standards (DLS), universal and essential material preconditions for achieving well-being and inclusive development. Here, we use subnational Demographic and Health Survey data from 75 low and middle-income countries (1990–2021) to explore the distribution and trends of ten living standards. We estimate that 94.9% of households in our dataset lack the material prerequisites for at least one of the ten standards, and 63.6% for one-third of them. Stark inequalities persist both within and between countries, with regions in sub-Saharan Africa experiencing the most severe deprivations. Despite some improvements, progress remains limited in critical areas such as health care, sanitation, housing, and education. Within countries, rural, agrarian households with low levels of educational attainment are particularly disadvantaged. These granular findings at the subnational level can help direct policy efforts and resources towards those populations most in need.

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