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Zehrung, A., King, A.D., Nicholls, Z. 
ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4767-2723, Zelinka, M.D., & Meinshausen, M.
(2025).
Standardising the “Gregory method” for calculating equilibrium climate sensitivity.
Geoscientific Model Development 18 (23) 9433-9450. 10.5194/gmd-18-9433-2025.
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Abstract
The equilibrium climate sensitivity (ECS) - the equilibrium global mean temperature response to a doubling of atmospheric CO2 - is a high-profile metric for quantifying the Earth system's response to human-induced climate change. A widely applied approach to estimating the ECS is the "Gregory method" (Gregory et al., 2004), which uses an ordinary least squares (OLS) regression between the net radiative flux, N, and surface air temperature anomalies, Delta T, from a 150 year experiment in which atmospheric CO2 concentrations are quadrupled. The ECS is determined by extrapolating the linear fit to N=0, i.e. the Delta T-intercept, indicating the point at which the system is back in equilibrium. This method has been used to compare ECS estimates across the CMIP5 and CMIP6 ensembles and will likely be a key diagnostic for CMIP7. Despite its widespread application, there is little consistency or transparency between studies in how the climate model data is processed prior to the regression, leading to potential discrepancies in ECS estimates. We identify 32 alternative data processing pathways, varying by differences in global mean weighting, net radiative flux variable, anomaly calculation method, and linear regression fit. Using 44 CMIP6 models, we systematically assess the impact of these choices on ECS estimates and calculate uncertainty ranges using two bootstrap approaches. While the inter-model ECS range is insensitive to the data processing pathway, individual outlier models exhibit notable differences. Approximating a model's native grid cell area (if irregular) with cosine of the latitude can decrease the ECS by 11 %, the choice of N-variable can change the ECS by 6 %, and some anomaly calculation methods can introduce spurious temporal correlations in the processed data. Beyond data processing choices, we also evaluate an alternative linear regression method - total least squares (TLS) - which has a more statistically robust basis than OLS. However, for consistency with previous literature, and given TLS may reduce the ECS compared to OLS (by up to 24 %), thereby making a known bias in the Gregory method worse, we do not feel there is sufficient clarity to recommend a transition to TLS in all cases. To improve reproducibility and comparability in future studies, we recommend a standardised Gregory method: weighting the global mean by cell area, using the top of the atmosphere (as opposed to the top of model) N-variable, and calculating anomalies by first applying a rolling average to the preindustrial control timeseries then subtracting from the raw CO2 quadrupling experiment. This approach accounts for model drift while reducing noise in the data to best meet the pre-conditions of the linear regression. While CMIP6 results of the multi-model mean ECS appear insensitive to these processing choices, similar assumptions may not hold for CMIP7, underscoring the need for standardised data preparation in future climate sensitivity assessments.
| Item Type: | Article |
|---|---|
| Research Programs: | Energy, Climate, and Environment (ECE) Energy, Climate, and Environment (ECE) > Integrated Assessment and Climate Change (IACC) |
| Depositing User: | Luke Kirwan |
| Date Deposited: | 09 Dec 2025 09:33 |
| Last Modified: | 09 Dec 2025 09:33 |
| URI: | https://pure.iiasa.ac.at/21065 |
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