How home automation reshapes household time use and energy demand: Evidence from a mixed-methods longitudinal study

Vrain, E., Bieser, J., & Wilson, C. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8164-3566 (2026). How home automation reshapes household time use and energy demand: Evidence from a mixed-methods longitudinal study. Energy and Buildings 353 e116920. 10.1016/j.enbuild.2025.116920.

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Abstract

Domestic automation technologies are increasingly promoted as time- and energy-saving solutions, yet limited empirical evidence exists on how they are incorporated into everyday routines or how they influence household energy demand. Existing studies rarely examine real-world use over extended periods, leaving behavioural adaptations and indirect energy impacts underexplored. This paper addresses these gaps through a 15–18 month longitudinal mixed-methods experimental study of automation with 10 UK households, examining how the automation of floor cleaning reshapes time use and energy demand. Data were collected through repeated time-use diaries, smart-plug energy monitoring, app-based usage logs, participant reflections, and follow-up interviews. By integrating time-use analysis with typologies of indirect energy impacts, we quantify how automation alters when, how, how long and how often tasks are performed, frequently increasing total task duration and layering energy demand.
During the trial, floor-cleaning frequency increased on average by 32% and total cleaning duration by 189%, while occupants’ manual cleaning time decreased by 45 %. Energy demand direct from the device declined in some households but increased in others due to more frequent device operation, reflecting diverse patterns of substitution, efficiency, and rebound effects. Longer-term follow-up showed use of the device became partially routine, with most households maintaining higher cleaning duration but reduced frequency relative to the trial period. The findings demonstrate that the energy outcomes of domestic automation are highly contingent on how technologies are embedded within household routines. The study highlights the need for context-responsive design, behavioural-aware energy policy, and further investigation of how digitally mediated routines shape domestic energy demand.

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